Audio Peak Indicator Circuit

The existence of the peak indicator "Audio Peak Indicator" in an audio device is needed. Audio Peak indicator is a simple circuit to detect the peak level of audio signal. Audio Peak indicator circuit is built with duabuah transistor and LED indicator as peak level detection of audio signals.


The main function of a series of Audio Peak indicator is to determine the occurrence of the peak level of audio signal that is more than +4 dB, equivalent to 1.25 V rms. If the received audio signal Audio Peak Indicator more than +4 dB was the LEDs in series Peak Audio This indicator will light. Audio Peak indicator circuit is mounted on the output audio system.
Audio Peak Indicator Component List:
R1 = 10Kohm
R2 = 1.2Kohm
R3 = 220Kohm
R4-5 = 4.7Kohm
C1 = 47uF 25V
C2 = 2.2uF 25V
Q1-2 = BC550C
D1 = LED RED

We hope to form the reference materials in the manufacture of circuit pernagkat Audio Peak Indicators in the audio readers.

Timer with about 10 minutes

Applications of 555 timer IC is very diverse, one series of 10 Minute Timer with IC 555. 10 Minute Timer This circuit uses IC NE555 is set as a monostable multivibrator. The timing of the timer circuit 10 minutes with the IC 555 is governed by the configuration of C2, R4 and R5. The greater the value of C2 at 10-minute timer circuit with IC 555 timer is active then the time will stay longer. 


Total resistance value between R4 and R5 also determine the active circuit 10 minute timer with IC 555, where the greater the value the longer time was also active. The core active setting the timer on the set of C2 charging time for 10 minutes on the timer circuit with IC 555. So, with the value of C2 remain so with time on the circuit timing Timer 10 minutes by IC 555 can be set by changing the resistance value R 4 + R 5. Indicators of active timer at 10 minute timer circuit with IC 555 uses the LED D2 and D3 will light up only one course to identify the active timer and the timer has not been met.


Figure 10 Minute Timer circuit with IC 555


Description:

S1 is used to set / reset timer
R5 is used to set the timer to the desired time

Fire alarm with light sensor

Fire alarm can be made with a light sensor (LDR) as in the article with the title of Fire Alarm with this LDR sensor. Principles of fire detection Fire Alarm with LDR sensor is to detect the presence of smoke through the LDR. LDR in the series Fire Alarm does not stand alone in detecting a fire, but the LDR in the pair with the light shining on the LDR.


Hence, in the detected smoke from the fire then the intensity of light received by the LDR LDR decreases and eventually trigger an alarm system on a series of Fire Alarm with this LDR sensor. Part 2 that in the series of Fire Alarm with Sensor LDR are some of the sensors, tone generator, audio power.


Image Series Fire Alarm with Sensor LDR


Function Section of the Fire Alarm with Sensor LDR
Part of LDR and light sensor facing to fire smoke detection
Part trigger using transistors and regulators as a trigger tone generator 7805
Tone generator section with IC UM66
Power audio section uses an audio power IC TDA 2002 which is equipped with voleme control (R3)

Series NIMH Battery Charger with IC LT4060 is a NIMH battery charger is powerful, effective and efficient. Featur owned by IC LT4060 is a specialization of a NIMH battery charger. NIMH Battery Charger with IC LT4060 can perform safely charging NIMH batteries because it comes with a battery temperature protection is in charge and the peak level detection system of the battery voltage is in charge. 


Battery temperature protection system from the excessive use of NTC temperature sensor. Series NIMH Battery Charger with IC LT4060 also features a charging indicator that will light up when charging and will die when the battery is full. IC 4060 used in this NIMH battery charger from Linear Technology is a production that is designed special for NIMH battery charger.

Image Series NIMH Battery Charger with IC LT4060

Description Series NIMH Battery Charger with IC LT4060
R2 potentiometer used for setting the maximum temperature (at set at the value of 4K)
LED D1 is a battery charging indicator
Charger Power Transistor (Q1) can be replaced with PNP transistors are capable of a current of 3A - 5A

The displayor using a 7 segment display in electronic device applications is drain port of a microcontroller or data that would point in the show, especially when the data would be displayed more than 1 digit. necessary path to control the resources of each 7 segment and the path to input data on the 7 segment. 


Series Display 7 Segment 4 Digit Multiplex is a way to save the port or microcontroller data path that will be displayed. Series Display 7 Segment 4 Digit Multiplex uses BCD to 7 segment decoder 74LS247 BCD to encode data from the data that will be displayed, then for each resource viewer 7 segment using the set of transistors as electronic switches. Current flowing in the viewer in a series of 7 segment Display 7 Segment 4 Digit Multiplex is in limiting use yag resistor in series pairs in each collector transistor.


Image Series Display 7 Segment 4 Digit Multiplex


Configuration circuit components 7 Segment 4 Digit Display Multiplex
The legs LT, RBI, RBO in this circuit is not connected (logic high) is meant to display data from the seven segment according to data from the microcontroller. Resistors are mounted a series of LED is used as a barrier for current flow that flows through the LED does not exceed the maximum allowable current that is equal to 20 mA.

PWMMotor Driver

As the title "PWM DC Motor Driver with Forward / Reverse and Breaking" this series is a PWM DC motor controller that can control DC motors with clockwise rotation and counter-clockwise and is equipped with a braking system. 


In a series DC motor control PWM DC Motor Driver with Forward / Reverse and Breaking use this system for SASL PWM DC motor rotation speed. Power driver in a series DC motor PWM DC Motor Driver with Forward / Reverse and Breaking uses mosfet IRF150. Then, to control the direction of rotation of DC motor in the circuit of PWM DC Motor Driver with Forward / Reverse and Breaking uses relays. Then the braking system on a series of PWM DC Motor Driver with Forward / Reverse and Breaking is done by a resistor that is connected to the motor using relays.


Fig circuit PWM DC Motor Driver with Forward / Reverse and Breaking

Click to view larger




See image details a series of PWM DC Motor Driver with Forward / Reverse and Breaking above. DC motor speed is set to pulse through the input PWM PWM, Power driver uses and the protection mosfet IRF150 with D7 as dumping. Then to start and stop is controlled via the logic input lines provided on the start / stop circuit PWM DC Motor Driver. Line inputs are used to set the reverse direction of rotation of DC motor that is with merberikan logic 1 / 0 on the path. R19 in the circuit of PWM DC Motor Driver serves as an expense to do the braking puteran DC motor.

Zero Crossing Detector Circuit

Zero Crossing Detector circuit is basically an application of a comparator. In the article series Zero Crossing Detector with Op Amp is built using a comparator of an Op Amp IC741/351. The process of detection of this comparator is  0Volt input signal crossing point by making reference value at comparator 0Volt.



 The output of the Zero Crossing Detector circuit with Op Amp is wave-shaped box that detection result of the crossroads of 0 volt input signal.

Easy Downloader Circuit
Atmel microcontroller series AT89Cxx51 Easy Downloader is one of the downloader that is often used to write data to program the Atmel microcontroller AT89CXX51. Easy Downloader AT89Cxx51 ATMEL microcontroller is using the serial port as a channel of communication with the computer. 



Easy Downloader ATMEL Microcontroller AT89Cxx51 can be used to program Atmel AT89CXX51 in parallel. Atmel microcontroller series AT89Cxx51 Easy Downloader is quite simple to make your own because the components necessary to membutanya not complex. Atmel microcontroller series AT89Cxx51 Easy Downloader do not support the serial programming microcontrollers ISP. In the article Easy Downloader ATMEL Microcontroller AT89Cxx51 only displays images Easy Downloader Microcontroller series from Atmel AT89Cxx51 only and are simple.

Real time controller AT89C2051
Real time controller is a device used to exercise control over household device continuously ongoing and scheduled. The series of Real Time Controllers with microcontroller AT89C2051 which dituls in this article is a tool that can do that serve targeted. The series of Real Time Controller with Microcontroller AT89C2051 Atmel AT89C2051 uses a data processor and controller as device installed. 


In the application directly devices requires a separate interface from a wide range of Real Time Controllers with this AT89C2051 microcontroller. When will connect the device with the AC power source to use interface optocoupler (MOC) or solid state relay. Devices that can be connected with the series of Real Time Controller with Microcontroller AT89C2051 include lights, water machines, fans, electronic gate. The series of Real Time Controllers with this AT89C2051 microcontroller to control a height of water level, controlling the flame lights the scheduled SCARA and censored.

Specifications Series Real Time Controller with AT89C2051 Microcontroller
The series of Real Time Controller with Microcontroller AT89C2051 uses a computer to perform serial communication settings via computer. The series of Real Time Controller with Microcontroller AT89C2051 has 6 units of output channels that can be independently controlled depending on the program induced in the tool. Output in the series of Real Time Controller with AT89C2051 microcontroller requires an interface to deal with equipment that will be in control.

SMS Remote controller circuit

SMS Remote controller is a device used to control a device remotely using SMS through GSM mobile phones. Process control equipment with a series of AVR ATTiny To SMS Remote Controller can be used to control life and death of these equipment will provide information on the status of replies to our phone in return successful command execution. 
Equipment can be controlled by a series of AVR ATTiny To SMS Remote Controller include lights, water pumps, garage doors, gates and much more. AVR series ATTiny To SMS Remote controller uses the module-47 Sony ericson GM as recipient and sender of the SMS module. Then to the SMS data processor on a series of AVR ATTiny To SMS Remote controller is using AVR microcontroller ATTiny 2313.


Series AVR ATTiny To SMS Remote Controller

SMS Remote controller circuit Click to view larger. 

AVR circuit this part ATTiny To SMS Remote Controller
AVR series ATTiny To SMS Remote controller uses the AVR attiny2313 with 4MHz clock frequency, GSM Module GM trnceiver 47 Sony ericson, SIM Card, 4 relays and an IC regulator. ATTiny AVR microcontroller 2313 can work well on the voltage 2.7 VDC - 5.5 VDC for working with the frequency at 10MHz bahwah. 

The set of AVR ATTiny In SMS Remote Controller To make use of this power supply from the batteries 3.3 VDC. Connection using a SIM Card SIM Card Holder which is connected to the module GM-47, AVR series ATTiny To SMS Remote Controller works with communication between AVR ATTiny and GM-47 module at 9600bps. In a series of AVR ATTiny To SMS Remote controller is equipped with LED D6 as an indicator of the data interconnect GM-47 module with cellular operators where this LED will light continuously when not apat network and will be lit by flashes when a signal from the operator.

Specifications AVR series ATTiny To SMS Remote Controller


  • 4 Relay for ON / OFF electronic devices
  • 8 input lines for reading in a normal switching
  • LED indicators signal operator
  • SMS command with password, so only the owner can operate

Flip Flop Led Circuit

Flip Flop LED
Flip flop circuit is a series of free runing multivibrator given the burden of LEDs on each side of the transition changes its output signal. Flip flop circuit with LEDs is quite simple, that is prepared with 2 units and 2 units of 2N3904 transistor circuit tank circuit composed by the RC circuit. 
LED indicators signal a change that is placed on each side of the flip flop will be lit in turn by the fire and extinguished the same as the charge and discharge capacitor. Flip flop circuit is quite simple as shown in the picture below.

Flip Flop LED series

The working principle is the flip flop over when the series voltage source is given then the 10uF capacitor will be charged through R 470 and the LED will then be forwarded to triger the transistor base so that the transistor will turn ON and LEDs. this occurs alternately on each side, so that the LED light will illuminate in turn as well.

IC LM2917 Frequency to Voltage Converter
IC LM2917 IC chip is designed specifically as a Frequency to Voltage Converter or Frequency to Voltage converter. In its use to applications Frequency to Voltage Converter IC LM2917 requires few external components. 
There are several examples of applications of Frequency to Voltage Converter IC LM2917 datasheet that is included in the LM2917 IC. In this article series Frequency to Voltage Converter IC also taken from the LM2917 datasheet. The advantages of single chip LM2917 Frequency to Voltage Converter is able to provide instantaneous volt output o at time of frequency change 0 Hz. Very easy to apply in measuring the output frequency with the formulation of single-chip Frequency to Voltage Converter VOUT = FIN x VCC x R1 x C1.

Then the single-chip LM2917 Frequency to Voltage Converter This configuration requires only the RC only in frequency doubling. And has an internal zener regulator to aimlessly accuracy and stability in frequency-to-voltage conversion process.

Application circuit Figure IC LM2917 as Frequency to Voltage Converter

Feature-owned single-chip LM2917 Frequency to Voltage Converter
Reference to ground directly with variable reluctance
Op Amp / Comparator with transistor output
50 mA maximum output currents for application directly to the load
Frequency doubling for low ripel
Buid in zener
Linear output ± 0.3%
Application single chip LM2917 Frequency to Voltage Converter
Frequency to Voltage Converter
Rotation speed sensor applications
Speedometer
Tachometer
Cruise Control
Cluth Control
And other applications associated with the measurement of rotation speed or frequency measurements.

Battery Charger in general can be interpreted as a means to recharge the battery charge. Principles of good charger circuit is capable of providing resources to perform effectively charging the battery, efficient and safe. AVR-Based Battery Charger ATMega 8535 With LCD Display This is an idea that had just emerged from the author.
In AVR-Based Battery Charger design ATMega 8535 With LCD Display is using AVR microcontroller processor charger with ATMega 8535, process the data viewer charger with LCD, a safety from a hot temperature with the temperature sensor LM35 and several buttons for setting the charger. And component power charger Battery Charger Based on AVR ATMega 8535 With LCD Display is a FET.
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Function-Based Battery Charger Part Series AVR ATMega 8535 With LCD Display
ATMega 8535 AVR microcontroller serves as the controlling process of the charger.
Button S1 - S5 as input data charger settings (setting the current, maximum temperature, peak voltage batteries)
LM35 Temperature Sensor function as heat sensors in the battery during charge.
LCD Display function to display data and display settings charger battery charger process measurement data.
FET serves as a power charger that will flow into the battery charging current.

ADC 207 Flash Converting

Flash Converting - ADC 207
ADC 207 is the first to use Flash Converting An Advanced High Speed ​​VLSI 1.2 micron CMOS process. The process that is able to do the ADC 207 as mentioned earlier is very great and makes the ADC 207 is unique. The speed of the process of this ADC has a good linearity and have a stable temperature. ADC 207 has a lower power consumption is 250 mW.
ADC is working with +5 VDC voltage source and at a frequency of 20 MHz. ADC 207 has a small sampling time is 12nS, thus making the ideal sampling results. ADC 207 has 128 features auto balanced comparators with each conversion that serves to offset temperature and dynamic effects that exist. Resistor ladder in the ADC 207 has a mid point that is connected to an external voltage source and function in the conversion of 7-bit linearity. ADC 207 has 3 levels of output that is easy to connect it with external components.

ADC 207 Architecture

Feature ADC 207

7-bit flash A / D Converter
Sampling frequency of 20 MHz
Low power consumption (250mW)
VCC 5 VDC
1.2 micron CMOS technology
7 bits with 3 levels of output gates and overflow bits

Very Simple Peak Indicator Circuit


This series is made to indicate that the amplifier has been given the maximum signal, the amplifier has the ability to be at its peak. if the lights do not mean the signal-plus volume.the way it works is the LED lights will light up when given a signal that more than 1.8 volts, the average amplifier will be saturated (maximum) if the signal was given more than this. 


The circuit is very simple to the point that we forget that making a series of peak signal can in this way. circuit is mounted on the output tone control IC, master mixer output, or input power amplifier. This series does not impose on other circuits.survived the experiment!

DC fan control circuit for power amplifier .Variable speed DC fanThis series of works based on the input signal. Speed ​​/ fan rotation depending on size of the input signal coming from speaker lines. If there is no signal then the fan will spin slowly according to the setting VR1.Input supply can be taken directly from the main transformer power amplifier, 12V CT 12V, so no need to increase the transformer again.

Circuit Schematic Electronics | CSE


This circuit has been tested and do not cause buzzing.correction: the lowest R: 560 ohm

Power amplifiers that we sometimes raises a raft of small drone as groundingless than perfect.The following are some ways to cope with the hum of the power amplifier: 

1. Keep sensitive circuits of the transformer, casing dimensions are not too small.One blog even suggested to use two-bok, bok special one for the transformer. For the toroid transformer or amplifier with a large transformer, should only contain a series of power amps, with no tone control. 
2. Change the position of the transformer, side by side into the lower side (the transformer is high) withfacing a series of sensitive posts 
3. Use a spacer on each PCB board as high as half the height of the transformer, eg as high as 2.5 cm or more so that the PCB board parallel to the core / center of the transformer, here the effect of the weakest fields. 
4. We recommend using a stereo module instead of two mono modulesThis avoids wiring errors. If forced to, try to sizecable between the right and left modules as long and as short as possible. 
5. Should take the ground path for the speaker of ct ct elco instead of the transformer,if the board pcb mounted two big elco (like elco power supply), takeground path of the speakers here, and check to hear! 
6. Power supply for radio (TX or RX) is very sensitive, use a capacitor4x100nf, 4 pairs of these capacitors in parallel to each mem-diode (bridge). 
7. At the tone control circuit IC op-amp that uses a symmetric power supply,sufficient ground wiring is taken from the signal ground wires only. shouldIC power supply (7812) installed near the main power supply, notmounted near the tone control. 
8. Always use a stereo cable shrouded perfect (color stereo cablered-white-covered ground and wrapped in transparent skin. 
9. For power supply, use capacitors of 2200uF per ampere elco 
10. Zoom and ground wires as short as possible, especially a pair of elco (ct line between elco) power supply (can be tried for the amplifier blazer) 
11. For the amplifier should be mounted to the computer casing when not in the ground soil is diground PC casing soil 
12. Pairs of each kit to the circuit without passing groundnya nut / baud / spacer. Do not let the existing ground line at the hole pcb connected to the casing / box. Do not follow this ground. ground attached to the casing should have one. if necessary use a plastic spacerovercome the noise: 
1. Use the active component (IC) that qualified as TL084, TL074, notLM324. LM324 any brand of noise. TL084 is more guaranteed authentic yellow (ST), not white. For now, the IC TL084 is printed white-work unstable frequencyhigh (treble breaks and more noise). For IC 4558 (NE5532) use plain white silk screening JRC4558D or TL072 - TL082 yellow, LF353 noise. LM741 (NE5534) can be replaced with the Hitachi HA17741, LF351 noise may also, has never been tried.we do not have to look for the brand and the price is more expensive because it is the most low noise. 
2. If necessary, the circuit power amplifier OCL, lowering its gain by lowering the value ofresistor in the path gain from 33k to 22k speaker, mimics the gain-clone lower amplifier noise. 
3. Should simplify the circuit, the circuit is too complex is more susceptible to noise and interference. 
4. Should then potentio / volume mounted on the input-power amplifier, such as professional amplifier without tone control.

Tone control low noise circuit

Tone control or pre-amplifier is an amplifier circuit supporters. Sometimes some of us do not know where a good amplifier, a raft alone and the results are not much different or even the same. Therefore we must know the character of the advantages and disadvantages of each amplifier equipment.

Tone control low noise here does not mean without noise, but noise compared with the lowest tone control on the market, for example Ronica transistor 4, TL-084, TC-2 LM833 etc.

CSE | Circuit Schematic Electronics

Jump toexplanation of each component ...

Potensio 1 serves to regulate the intensity / level of the incoming signal is assisted potensio 2 as balance / counterbalance. Potensio 2 is still installed and is usually an optional component. 1-2uF/250V capacitor R1 is actually a brand name,but I prefer to replace it with a 1K resistor / 5% normal for reasons to avoid hum and interference sensitive. R2 R3 while minimizing interruption to adjust the impedance OP-amp 1. R4 and R5 serves to increase the gain of 1.3 times. Pre amplifiers typically use a strengthening standards by 2 times, but by most of us think it has a noise. So I chose the value of 1.3 times, but the most minimal noise signal from the volume is enough to make the lamp light peak.

For low noise ...Cause of noise in op amp 1, apex audio even eliminate this stage. CanThis step is also used as a buffer (jumper R5), the strengthening of a time. Lower values ​​increase the value of R5 or R4 with consequent gains to be less, but remains at a value above 1 times due to input non-inverting path to take, so that the signal and noise can be reduced. R4 can also be replaced with a 10K trimpot and middle leg into the bass range adjuster (bass resonance).

C1 and C6 as a filter to reduce the treble / high frequency of excessive or often called oscillation prevention. R6 is actually an optional component of the impedance a little help customize the system. Ideally the same as the R8 R7 to facilitategive the sign of the gain on potensio panel tone control. C2 and C3 form a series circuit treble filter (high pass filter), its value is greater then the sound that passed the mid. C4 and C5 assisted by R9 and R10 form the low pass filter (filter bass), the greater the value of C is a bass sound that will be missedthe soft / low (maximum of 47nF), the smaller the value of c is the bass signal that is passed will further dip (dig-dig, c4 = c5 = 22nF). This value is suitable for 27-33nF, 47nF instead (depending on taste). Pot 3 & 4 pot set treble and bass levels, the greater the greater the value of this potensio gains (bass & treble including potensio volume). R11 adjusts the output impedance, while the R12 and the red LED indicator that shows if the amplifier Peak has been given a full signal.

15V maximum supply. TL074 IC can, but in designing the PCB, IC can bereplaced with 2x TL072/NE5532/4558.

Spirit Amplifier Schematics

Amplifier circuit built-up is pretty nice not always complex. There are a series of amplifiers that I saw a picture of the kit immediately. The circuit is quite simple, there was the most complex in the pre-amp and its protector.
Click to view larger | CSE-Circuit Schematic Electronics

How a series of ...Op-amp stage 1 is the heart of the circuit, the input stage with enough power to drive the power transistor. Sensor1 ntc & 2 can be attached to the main heatsink, this is optional so it can be eliminated, its functions to lower the bias voltage value if the heatsink overheating. There is no bias trimpot, R6 and R8 instead divide the voltage so we get <= 0.6V at the base driver tr.

If the voltage is just a little more driver transistors can be damaged and could trigger the final transistor is damaged in congregation / pairs. These transistors are used frequently broken, but after replaced by Sanken, safe. Thus the risk of the snaps without a limiter amplifier.

A pair of Q1 & Q2 transisitor drivers are the main transistor amplifier, while the other three pairs of transistors that form the current dumping circuit mode so it will work if there is a signal (especially bass). Final installation of this transistor is in the Blazer, hercules, Eti300w / new Giant. The design of this kind are designed to produce a stomping bass tones, the clarity about the number two, but here the driver transistor is working at grade A.The heat generated quite a bit because of using this mode (current dumping) plus the number of final / power transistor which is more than one pair. I used to use a minimal amount of the final two pairs of transistors to avoid this summer.

Installation of the load resistor should still be there at the foot of the emitter. R16 and C4 are usually intended to stabilize (reduce) the frequency of ultra treble.All use of Sanken transistors. Supply 63V 800VA toroid ct. Reservois capacitors used for stereo 2x 10.000uF/100VEstimated power ...500W rms at 8 ohms and 1000W at 4 ohms, but supply is limited in the 800VA transformer. Confused with a power output of this? Do not worry about who is more important than that is the loud speaker and the supply has not decreased. With the supply of the transformer between them are quite satisfied to control the speaker says 18 ".If I may be wrong image, R4-220K-C2 in parallel with 68pF

USB SPDIF DAC with IC PCM 2902

The tool that I made and I discuss in this article I give the name USB SPDIF DACEvery word in the name corresponds to the function of the tool that I made this.

USB, this device serves to take the music information in digital form from a computer via the USB port
SPDIF, this tool can output digital music information received through the USB port, through the SPDIF output terminal that is also present in this device, so if you have a DAC that does not have a USB input, you can still use and do not need to buy a new DAC that has an input USB.
DAC, this tool can convert the digital signals derived from the USB port, an analog signal, which you can connect to the amplifier to the ahirnya you can hear the speaker

Scheme of the USB DAC can be seen in Figure 1 below.
Click to view larger. | Figure 1

As you can see on the schematic in Figure 1 above, which is the heart of the circuit is IC USB DAC PCM2902 made ​​by Texas Instrument, other than that I also added a digital SPDIF output isolation transformer on from this series. 2902 PCM encoding decoding work on the principle that generally abbreviated as word CODEC. 
The new circuit will work when the USB input port terminal in the circuit connected to the computer, at this voltage 5V on the USB port of any computer will be triggering the circuit to begin work, and vice versa when the computer is turned off then the circuit will be in standby mode to wait until there is more tension 5V from USB port of computer. 
When the received voltage is 5V USB port the computer then the circuit will begin to receive the digital data files during the grace period of 1 ms, all data received during the period of time of 1 ms is called a frame, the data in the first frame is stored in a memory buffer that is in the PCM2902, then the circuit will start the second frame as well as long lead times for 1mS, 1mS a second after the first data from the file will be converted into analog signals for analog terminal is then removed through out the pin 15 and 16 of the PCM2902, other than that this digital signal simultaneously will also excreted through the DOUT terminal pin 25 of the PCM2902 DAC to be connected to older products that do not have a USB input terminal.In addition to functioning as a DAC, PCM2902 actually also has other functions such as setting volume level and ADC, but the circuit that I developed is only aimed for the ADC and the conversion from USB to SPDIF.

Proposed Power Supply For USB SPDIF DAC
Power Supply that I use in this project using the configuration has been proven able to tame the hum in the tube 26, the power supply has karakater very stable, low noise and low impedance, but complicated to make, so for the purposes of this project I recommend another series that is not as complicated Heater power supply 26, but the quality is still better than most of the power supply kit used in the DAC in general, Figure 2 below is the recommendation power supply for USB DAC this project.
Click to view larger. | Figure 2

Power supply circuit in Figure 2 above is composed of four main parts, namely
 1. Diode bridge and capacitor input filter
 2. TL431 as the reference voltage
 3. OP Amp OP27 as the error amplifier
 4. BD139 transistor as a pass transistorThis configuration is basically the general configuration of a linear regulator series, very much the regulator IC using this configuration, but the circuit in Figure 2 above has several advantages that are not owned by the regulator circuit in the form of ICa) high stability, since it uses a reference voltage source of good quality is TL431, and therefore not in a package with a pass transistor, the heat of the pass transistor can not seep into the source of reference voltage and makes it unstable, this sort of thing happens in IC voltage regulator.b) Using the Op Amp high quality, which in this case OP27, so it is not easy to oscillate as the OpAmp used in the regulator IC.c) If there is a chance you could also replace the TL431 or OP27 Op Amp voltage source and another that is expected to be better than either of these components.
Series of the finished PCB, top view

IC PCM2902

TDA 7309 Digital Audio Processor Circuit


Digital Audio Processor TDA 7309 is a stereo audio processor with independent volume control of each channel was to get the audio quality of a good processor. Digital Audio Processor TDA 7309 is equipped with a loudness control is controlled externally. Digital Audio Processor TDA 7309 also has a soft mute feature stand-alone for each canals. Digital Audio Processor TDA 7309 is controlled via the I2C serial bus system with a microcontroller interface. 


Click to view larger.

Block Diagram of Digital Audio Processor TDA 7309Feature-owned Digital Audio Processor TDA 7309The input multiplexer with 3 stereo inputRecording function on the output lineLoudnes external ontrolIndependent volume controlDigital volume control with 1dB stepSoft MuteAll functions of the Digital Audio Processor TDA 7309 is programmed via the I2C serial bus system

70 Watt MOSFET Audio Amplifier

This is use the MOSFET power amplifier circuit, amplifier circuit has a very good sound quality. With the noise is quite small, thus making the amplifier circuit is suitable for you to try. Here's the circuit.
Click to view larger.

 Power amplifier with a 70Watt power is able to issue a clear voice, and very and good loud.

This series is the volume of the digital amplifier That is used on or tone control. This series ic type using DS1669 Digital Pot IC specifically for this volume match. a series of settings used at the middle-class amplifier That small powerless under 50 watts.volum11components: C1 = 0.1uf Ceramic, IC = IC DS1669 Digital Pot, S1 / S2 = digital swicthOr you can use the series to this one:volum2The Work: The digital volume control IC uses 9.
Click to view larger.


Required to operate the series voltage regulator is 12 volts. IC1 (555) is very good to work as a flip-flop. Frequency or period can be determined with selecting value of resistor R44, R45 is combined with a capacitor C6. In this series has a 0.3 second period.IC2 is used to Decrease or increase of the calculation. In the series of this mode is used to raise up and down mode is used to Decrease the volume. 
While IC4 and IC3 has a 16-channel, analogue multiplexers, while working as an analog switch. IC3 is used as in the series of level indicator while IC4 is used as potentiometer.After the next power in the on-it, and the switch S1 is pressed to reset. When the switch S2 is pressed, the IC2 and the balance in the form of output legs responded B, C, and D in CMOS IC2. Output B, C and D control line inputs IC2 and IC3, and the chosen one, the 16-channel output, by turning on the analogue.In this series, IC4 is used as the potentiometer is connected to the That resistor 15 (R9 to R23) each of the 16 input pins and resistor / capacitor combination with C2, C3 and R7 to the output. 
Switch S2 is used to raise and switch S3 is used to Decrease the volume.Electrolyte capacitor of 1uF (C4) is used to Prevent the occurrence of noise. While the R8 and the resistor R6 is used to Prevent Tension on the half-supply voltage in order to avoid distortion of the audio signal coming from the preamplifier. Meanwhile, capacitor C2, C3 and resistor R7 is provided to filter the audio. Happy work, hopefully successfully. 

 COMPONENT LIST:

R1, 2, 3, 4: 560R R16: 1,5KR45: 150KR5: 680RR17: 3,3KC1: 0,01uFR6, 8: 100KR18: 5,6KC2, 3: 100nFR7: 1MR19: 8,2KC4: 1uF/50VR9: 10RR20: 15KC5: 100nFR10: 12RR21: 33KIC1: 555R11: 42RR22: 56KIC2: 74193R12: 100RR23: 1,5MIC3: CD4067R13: 220RR24…R39: 560RIC4: CD4067R14: 470RR40..R43: 4,7KIC5: 7805R15: 820RR44: 330KIC6 N1-N4): 7407

You've electric shock?? .. Well, .. it was nice to recover all your gout! Sometimes true .. but we often do not touch circuit accidentally in the work that is still connected with line / grid (pln) .. pissed, wants I think we stepped on the stuff ..! patient first. 


Is there any easy way to avoid electric shock in repair work .. can even avoid the occurrence of ESD, if we deal with electronic goods which are sensitive to ESD (PC motherboards, mobile phones, circuit digital etc). you raft just like this series .. used as supply for the solder, when dealing with components which are sensitive to ESD and touch (CMOS IC). the greater capacity of the transformer Ampere. the greater the (good) power which can be handled. The second transformer is identical / similar.

Make A Virtual Phone Battery

Virtual cell phone battery is a replacement cell phone batteries for those of you who use the phone as a modem. Including myself, who use the phone as a modem HAIER d1200p internet.  Why must use this virtual battery. For those who surf hobby "full time" with a phone modem, would know the problem, the battery gets hot and fast reply wasteful even worn out.
virtual phone battery circuit
This tool is a good solution to keep and care for our cell phones from the possibility of damage from over-charging its battery.I created a virtual battery works as follows:We take the source of its power supply from the USB port because the port is very easy and simple to use and simply provide a standard current source when the phone is online (500-750mA).

The workings of the circuit is as follows:Diodes or diode 2Amper in 5239 this standard to provide a useful addition to the polarity of the voltage which is also a component of protection against misuse. You can just use a 1 Amp diode (IN4002-4007). I use the IN 5239 is due to be durable, more resistant to heat.4v3 zener diode IN4007 and configured to create a portal voltage of 5V (4.3 + 0.7 volt zener Vin4007) and is useful as a protection system against possible voltage spikes in the event of damage to the CPU.220nF capacitor as a stabilizer and a substitute for the original battery cells.

The following also 100pF capacitor to smooth and filter the dc current through the diode 5239 which came out of the induction logging.Configuration between zener4v3, IN4007 diode and C 220n form a cell replacement from the actual battery cells, because the battery was actually a capacitor which had a large capacity.You can just remove the three components mentioned above. although it can work fine .

But results are not as good as that use virtual cell (replacement), which certainly was the security which we have to think to avoid the things which are not in want.Making way is to use an old cell phone batteries which have been wasting his cell, a raft of this circuit and the solder terminals on the batteries with the polarity distinguished. Make two holes for the cable to the jack / USB jack.

 Determine the length of cable required to taste and use stranded cable with a diameter of at least 1mm.If some type of cell phone batteries are very thin, use a small box for this circuit and connect the two wires to the output voltage again for hp battery casing. Or also if you do not have a former battery casing, use alligator clips to the battery terminal on the phone .. Pin the middle of the virtual pin replacement battery is BSI (Battery Size Insdicator) is useful for HP Nokia.

IC LA78040 schematic for vertical deflection

Synchronization circuit to make the signals useful in the process of scanning of the transmitter and sent to the Vertical and Horizontal. To be able to produce images on the picture tube phosphor surface is the same as what was sent, then the necessary adjustments to correct with ualsan which has decomposed on the sender and receiver on the review must be made ​​again, and this is called synchronization.



Click to view larger


On TV transmitter switching pulses that have made ​​the same frequency as in the reviewing, and by using the switching pulse is then mulapenguilasan point getter on the tube and picture tube can be adjusted simultaneously. 
At the transmitter, each end of the line reviews one pulse is emitted horizontally, and also at each end of the line vertical review (this is called a field review), another pulse is emitted. At the receiver using switching pulses had the time of the beginning (start) review can be arranged horizontally and vertically. Switching pulses are called the horizontal synchronizing signal and vertical synchronization.Vertical SynchronizationA. Vertical in the tv series has the following functionsa) bend / open beams of light (information) to the vertical direction.b) Synchronize files from a transmitter in the form of images with short time.

Building a radio station

Requires us to make things systematically and efficiently, because time is very valuable to us, then some of the advances in technology has been applied in various fields, including education, because this is where all the technological advances developed.Lots of technology is rapidly expanding in our country today. With technology growing by leaps and bounds this is what will make the work more systematic and efficient.Based on our technological advances and his friends create a system are related to the Electronics course, we propose the same faculty to develop a community tool. We got a second job in four semesters, which makes the FM transmitter.
Departing from hobby assembling electronic items, we try to assemble a mini-power transmitter that can emit a short signal of approximately 100 meters with power (power) 5 watts. This is a pilot who later became 12 watts. With 12 watts of power, radio broadcasts to reach a village. 
1.2 Formulation of ProblemProblems are handled from this lab assignment is to create and analyze the quality of an FM transmitter to get the data at test point 1, point 2 test, test point 3 and the exact frequency as desired.Things are of practical tasks is restricted only to analyze the quality of a transmitter and retrieve data from an existing test point. 
1.3 LimitationsProblems to be addressed in this lab assignment is limited to some of the following:1 • Retrieving data from the frequency and calculate TP 1 to TP 3.2 • Analyze a transmitter in the room, based on measurement data and make conclusions. 
1.4 ObjectivesObjectives to be achieved in this task are:A. Students can design and make the circuit in fm transmitter.2. 12 Watt FM transmitter that can be made of appropriate tools and can be marketed. 
1.5 MethodologyIn completing this lab assignment, the steps are as follows:1 • Learn about basic electronics concepts and learn concepts about the mechanism of FM modulation.2 • Analyze and conclude the experimental results, and give advice when it is applied to the practical task of the real system.3 • Preparing a report on second semester practicum assignment. 
1.6 DiscussionThis book of this lab assignment consists of 5 (five) chapters, in each chapter related to one another, namely: 
CHAPTER 1:Provide background on the issues, goals, problems and constraints of the problems discussed in this lab assignment.CHAPTER 2:Provide the theoretical basis to support problem solving in this lab assignment. The basic theory is given include: the mechanism of the tool inused in making the FM transmitter 
CHAPTER 3:Planning and manufacture of tools and how each blog diagram contained in FM transmitterCHAPTER 4:Contains the results of calculations and data processing, and analysis resultscalculation.CHAPTER 5:Provide conclusions about the results already obtained and suggestions.CHAPTER IIBASIC THEORY 
2.1 Koker

Koker serves to regulate or determine the frequency of the radio transmitter. In koker also Ferrite that serves as a core inductor in addition there is an inductance coil comprising primary and secondary winding. Way of working is to facilitate search koker empty wave. When filling koker in turn to the right to a maximum frequency of the oscillator produce more low. If the FM transmitter lights, turn left up the core koker to hissing on the FM radio signal is lost it will be found a strong and stable.

2.2 Inductor

Coil of wire that is wrapped with a particular matter, in this case to determine the value of the inductor is typically used Q-meter. Inductor serves as an impedance adjustment, so that the output of the impedance can be changed and in accordance with the desired (match).


2.3 Transistor

 Transistors have two connections, one of which is the emitter and the other base and collector. Because this is a transistor as two diodes. ransistor C1970 type normally used to raise the voltage 0.8 to 1 watt, I think it was in the C1970 study could increase about 8 times.On the C1971 transistor can be coupled directly from the exciter circuit and the voltage of 6.5 to 7 watts or bias raised about 10 times.If the C1970 to C1971 join the output power of about 12 watts or more. (All will be explained in Chapter III) 

2.4 ExciterExciter circuit consists of an oscillator and buffer.•  OscillatorTransmitter is the core of an oscillator. To be able to build a good communication system should begin with an oscillator that can work perfectly. In the communication system, the oscillator generates a sine wave is used as the carrier signal. Then the information signal is superimposed on a carrier signal with the modulation process.•  Buffer (Buffer)All types of oscillators require a buffer. Buffer serves to stabilize the frequency and / or amplitude of the oscillator from loading the next level. Usually a buffer consisting of 1 or 2 levels of the transistor amplifier dibias as class A.The heart of the broadcast transmitter FM exciter is located on it. Function of the exciter is to generate and modulate a carrier wave with one or more input (mono, stereo, SCA) in accordance with FCC standards. Which has been modulated carrier wave is then amplified by a wideband amplifier to the level required by the next level. 

2.5 BoosterPower amplifier is more popularly known as Booster. Booster is a device mounted radio transmitters attached to and used to amplify radio frequency transmit power in any direction that you want to go. For example, for a transmitter power of 25 watts which include only a single village, Booster is used to transmit power to be 50 to 100 watts so it can besurrounding the district. Boosters are generally small squares connected by cable to the transmitter which he built.Power amplifier is divided into two. First, the power amplifier which amplifies the signal in one cycle, the best signal quality and harmonious. The second, which only reinforces the power amplifier input signal is less than half of the cycle and generate a wave that damaged the same frequency.


2.6 Antenna

 Antenna function and simultaneously capture signals radiate radio wave radiation. The antenna is divided into two by the beam, ie• omnidirectional (all directions). This antenna radiates radio waves are equally strong all directions.• Bidirectional (both directions). This antenna radiates equally strong radio waves to only two directions. Two parameters that need to be considered is the polarization of the antenna and its gain. Put simply, an antenna has vertical polarization if the antenna is placed in a position perpendicular to the earth. Antenna with vertical polarization would produce radio waves with vertical polarization as well. In addition to the vertical, some horizontal polarized antenna, when the antenna is positioned parallel to the field of the earth.

2.7 Transmission LineTransmission line is the introduction to the generated power to the transmitter antenna. As an introduction to power, a good transmission line will not reduce the power of delivery and did not radiate, because it is the duty antennas radiate. So that the maximum power transfer occurs, then the transmission line characteristic impedance should also have the same view of resource load. Transmission line characteristic impedance is 300 W common (ribbon cable to the black and white TV), 75 W (on a color TV coaxial cable) and 50W (coaxial cable to the amateur radio equipment).Additional tools are in need in assembling a 12-watt FM transmitter, among which are:
 •  Power MeterPower Meter is a tool to measure the wave. On a transmission line that is not worth it, but the waves come rolling waves are reflected. Wave dating from the source to the load direction (from transmitter to antenna), while the reflected wave from the opposite direction (from the antenna to the transmitter). Usually on the Power Meter has two scales, onecame to power and one for the reflected power. The reflected power scale to be smaller than the scale for the future.
 •  SWR MeterSWR meter or measuring comparative standing waves are used to measure the ratio of the incident wave and reflected wave. So it is known how a resource commensurate with the burden. The working principle is based on the Power Meter SWR Meter. If there is only one Power Meter measurements, the SWR can be calculated from the incident power (Pf) andthe reflected power (Pr) with the formula:SWR = (OPF + ÖPr) (OPF - ÖPr).
• From the formula, the state equivalent (Pr = O) will be obtained SWR = 1.
• For a state that is not worth going to get SWR> 1.
• For the worst circumstances in which all power is reflected back dating (Pf = Pr) will get the SWR = infinity.
•  Dummy LoadTo be able to broadcast a maximum transmit power, but efficient, it takes a load impedance that is known with certainty as it is called Dummy Load reference. Dummy Load is free from the influence of frequency and can handle the disposal of the transmit power is too great. Dummy Load impedance is usually 50 or 75 Ohm. Dummy Load can be made withput some resistors in parallel in order to obtain the desired resistance and power. Parallelize some resistors minimize the stray inductance of the resistor. For example, can use the carbon resistor 300 Ohm / 2 watt for 6 seeds that are connected in parallel to get the Dummy Load with power of 12 watts and 50 Ohm impedance.

CHAPTER IIIPLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT TOOLS
3.1. PreliminaryTo plan and create a 12 Watt FM transmitter, need to know first about a block diagram of the system, the working system of the circuit isOverall, the calculations and planning.
3.2. System Block Diagram and Figure Series Overall

The picture above shows a block diagram of this system and imageThe overall network is made in full.Transmission System Block Diagram picture as a whole
3.2.1 Block diagram of the image transmitter exciter circuit FM

Picture Exciter Circuit Network consists of exciter oscillator and buffer. In this Exciter Network using the specification of components as follows:•  Koker•  Inductor: L2 = 0.12 micro-Henry, Henry Micro L3 = 0.12, L4 = 0.2 micro-Henry•  Transistor: C930•  Ohm: 5.6 K, 47 K, 33 K•  Babysitter WANTED: 2.2 nF, 100 nF, 18 pF, 20 pF, 5 pF•  trimer: 5-60 pFExciter is a network that produces oscillations, because the exciter are oscillator that acts as a sine wave generator and it will be dimodulasikan. In the oscillator system is also available buffer (buffer) that functions to stabilize the frequency / modulation oscillator amplifier due to the loading process by the next level. 
3.2.2 Network Booster (Power Amplifier)

The series of images BoosterIn the Booster circuit uses components withthe following specifications: 
 •  Inductors: L1 = 0.2 micro-Henry. L2 = 0.2 micro-Henry. 0085 L3 = L4 = 0.04 micro micro Henry Henry. L5 = 0.1 micro-Henry. L6 = 0.2 micro-Henry L7 = 0.2 micro-Henry. 
 •  Transistor 1970: 10 V VCEIc 0.1 AΒ 10-180 
 •  trimer: 5-30 pFBooster circuit consists of two levels of transistor amplifiers, each working on a class C, each input and output transistor amplifier circuit is given impedance adjustment.Strengthening of the first transistor using C1970. Strengthening the circuit has a 9.2 dB power gain (8 times), so that from the exciter-power 0.25 W of power generated should be 2 W. In fact the output of this first level of reinforcement produces only 1.75 Watt power, this is due to the loss of matching network circuit.Strengthening of the second level using transistor C1971. The amplifier circuit has a 10dB power gain (10 times). So that the power of the first level of 1.75 W can be strengthened to 17.5 W. In fact strengthening the power of the second level only reached 12.5 Watt. 
This is due to the loss of matching network and the limited range ofC1971 transistor. Because the price of the C1971 transistor is relatively expensive it is to use only the C1970 transistor. Therefore, the power generated by the transmitter is not as high as 12 Watt. Because of the heat generated second transistor is large enough then we put enough cooling. 

CHAPTER IVTESTING TOOLS4.1 
GeneralThis chapter discusses the testing and analysis system that has been made. In general, this test aims to determine if the device has been realized that can be worked in accordance with a predetermined plan specifications. The purpose of the tests performed on the system are as follows: 
•  Knowing how the exciter circuit 
•  Knowing how the booster circuit


4.2 Testing exciter circuit
•  The purposeTo find out if the oscillator can work well and achieve the desired frequency. And also to determine whether the buffer is running properly.
•  The equipment usedA. Koker2. Inductor3. Transistor4. Resistor5. Trimer6. Dummy Load7. 5 volt power supply8. Multimeter9. Frequency Counter10. PCB
•  The test procedureTest Block DiagramA. Assemble the equipment used in accordance Picture2. Provide 12 volt power supply to the exciter circuit3. Switch the exciter circuit to get the most power in large4. Calculate the voltage at TP 1, TP 2 and, TP 35. Observe the output (at V output)
•  The test resultsThe test results are shown in Table. the following:Exciter circuit Testing ResultsTest Results PointA 0.6V2 0.6V3 11.75 V
 4.3 Testing a series of booster
•  The purposeTo gain greater power and also increase the distance range of further emission up to 7-fold.
•  The equipment usedA. Inductor2. Transistor3. Trimer4. Dummy Load5. 12 Volt Power Supply
•  The test procedureTesting Block Diagram Picture Booster:A. Assemble the equipment used in accordance Picture2. Large test circuit voltage that can be accepted3. Observing the output
•  The test resultsThe test results are shown in Table. the following:Booster circuit Testing ResultsTest Results Point4 11,755 11,75

 CHAPTER VCLOSING
5.1. ConclusionBased on the test results it can be concluded:
•  In a series of FM transmitters we've made, the power output is only 2 Watt for C1970 transistor used is that only 1 Watt power up
•  FM transmitter that can be made only reach 93 MHz frequency
•  The distance achieved depends on the power emitted by the FM transmitter
 5.2 Advice
•  If you want to make the transmitter starts with a good oscillator.
• If you want to make a series of FM with a power greater then use the transistor C1971, C1946. the power generated about 25 watts.
• To balance the output of the FM transmitter mounted circuit PLL (Phase Local Loop).







Boster 15 watt rd 15 no tune

15 rd booster requires only 0.5 watts of input capable of out 15 watts, the voltage of 13.8 volts it needs. in this series are made to work freq 87-108 mhz fm broadcast. but did not rule to be modified in other freq. schematic and pcb layout to please download here

 

Booster BLW 60

In this post an opportunity, I upload booster BLW 60 which may be an inspiration to create home brew. Here I include a file layout that can be unlocked via software sprint layout. of course the software you can download here as well. ok g tuk need to talk at length, immediately wrote download the full data here


50 ohm dummy load

Assemble their own 50 ohm dummy load with a capacity of 40 watts. first of all we need is a 1k resistor 2watt as many as 20 seeds, plain PCB, and also the female connector just as the picture above.The first step is the form of a round PCB with the above picture just as much as 2 pieces of 3 cm diameter, to which drilled the diameter of the connector. 


With the goal as a PCB connector while the other will not need to be drilled due to the bottom.two pairs of resistors that is just as in the picture. if the test is finished living, 50 g 0hm what? if the resistor is not needed to be corrected again.What if want a bigger watt capacity, we simply replace the resistor, 1K5 ato 2k, of course, if using a 2k resistor smakin much we need. resistor which point no matter how much we want to attach. critical values ​​should be 50 ohms and the value of each resistor must be equal.survived the experiment may be useful

Low pass filter is a circuit to filter freq dirty from an fm transmitter. so we get a clean signal. and can maximize the output power generated from the booster. low pass filter is capable to 150 watts. in this post . file [lay] that can only be opened with software sprint layout. for those interested please download here.


This post is for an antenna loading coil telex broadcast on freq. let us buy Simply put wrote specifically for the antenna loading coil at the store component telex, because loading the settings is still for freq 2 meter, we must slightly modify it. The trick is easy, just replace the existing loops. original about 5 convolution convolution continues we replace 10 with 1 to 1.5 mm diameter wire. for more details see the pictures. may be useful ..



Wave antenna 5/8 pro VKV FM

Wave antenna 5/8 consists of a vertical radiator which is fed at the base of the antenna. A suitable device of some sort should be added between the antenna and feedline if you want to eat with coax. Adding a coil in series with the antenna on the base is one of these methods are suitable. 



So why would anyone use an antenna 5/8 wave if they have to go through all that extra work? After all, a ground plane antenna provides a good match. There are several answers. The first is GAIN. The computer shows that the antenna (mounted 1 foot above the ground) has a margin of about 1.5 dBd higher than a dipole (also installed 1 foot above the ground.)The second reason you might want to use the wave 5/8 vertical is to get a lower angle of radiation. Peak radiation angle A half-wave antenna is 20 degrees. You will find that the angle 5/8 wave antenna radiation is only 16 degrees so it is better dx antenna. 

 You may have noticed a pattern developing here. A quarter-wave ground plane antenna has a radiation pattern that produces the maximum gain at about 25 degrees and half-wave antenna drops to 20-degree angle, and wave antenna 5/8 further drops to 16 degrees angle. So why not just keep extending the antenna to one full wave? Well it would be nice if it worked, but unfortunately the wave patterns begin to create a very high angle of radiation waves exceed 5/8. So we've reached the maximum gain at this point and extend the antenna further reduce profits only where we want it (low angle). 

Of course if you are interested in a very short jump, extend the antenna will produce a nice profit on the dipole.All the length of the antenna depends on various factors. Some of these factors are: height above ground, the diameter of the wire, nearby structures, the effects of other antennas in the area and even the conductivity of the soil.This page allows you to calculate the wavelength for the antenna 5/8. It uses the standard formula, 585 / f (178.308 / f for metric) MHz to calculate the length of the element. If you have experimented with 5/8 wave antenna before and know a better formula for your QTH, feel free to change the formula accordingly. This formula is for the antenna wire. 

Of course if you build your antenna out of the tube, total length of the antenna will be shorter, for example I have found that 21.5 feet seems to provide maximum benefit to the frequency of 28.5 MHz when using a 1 "tube, and 22.5. Foot seems be the best long-wire at the same frequency. Since the formula to calculate the antenna to be about 2 feet shorter, be sure to experiment and maybe add a little for your final term.